05 - Split Decisions and Kotor Confessions
This week, I had the opportunity to visit Split, Croatia, and several coastal cities in Montenegro, namely Sveti Stephan, Kotor, and Perast.
Split
Split, a historic gem on the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, boasts a rich history spanning over two millennia. The city's origins trace back to the Illyrians, an ancient group of tribes who initially settled the region of the Balkans. By the 6th century BC, the Greek colony of Aspalathos had been established, marking one of the earliest significant settlements. However, it was the Roman Empire that would profoundly shape Split's development, particularly through the construction of Diocletian's Palace and the establishment of the Roman Colony, Salona.
The construction of Diocletian's Palace stands as the most pivotal event in Split's history, and it remains the center of Split’s tourist and vacation activities. Roman Emperor Diocletian, who ruled from 284 to 305 AD, chose this location for his retirement residence. Construction began around 293 AD and was completed in 305 AD, resulting in one of the most well-preserved structures from the Roman period.
Diocletian's Palace was designed as a massive fortress, encompassing an area of approximately 30,000 square meters. The structure combined elements of a luxurious villa with those of a military camp. Its layout was rectangular, with walls up to 2 meters thick and 20 meters high, featuring sixteen towers. The palace was divided into four sections: the southern part was designated as the Emperor's residence, the northern part housed military garrisons and servants, and the central area included public buildings and temples. Notable architectural features included the Peristyle, a grand courtyard, and Diocletian's mausoleum, which later became the Cathedral of Saint Domnius.
The materials and construction techniques used in the palace highlight the empire's extensive reach and influence. Local limestone and marble from nearby quarries, as well as bricks made in Salona, the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia, were used in the Palace’s construction. Imported materials, such as Egyptian granite columns and sphinxes, adorned the palace at Diocletian’s command and serve as an exemplar of the Empire’s territorial reach and economic power. The palace served multiple functions: it was a luxurious retirement villa, a fortified military garrison, and a center for political and religious activities for the province of Dalmatia. Diocletian spent his final years in Split after abdicating the throne in 305 AD, dedicating himself to gardening and overseeing the administration of the palace.
The palace was supported by the nearby Roman City of Salona, now a well-preserved UNESCO archeological site. Originally an Illyrian settlement, Salona became a Greek colony before its prominence rose significantly under Roman rule. Recognizing its strategic location and potential as a military and commercial hub, the Romans established Salona as a colony under Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC. During the great Roman Civil War between Caesar and Pompey, the city remained loyal to Caesar, supporting him even during his initial setbacks during his campaign in Greece. To reward their loyalty and devotion, Julius Caesar promoted the colony to city status, bringing with it all the privileges of a fully-fledged Roman City.
This integration into the Roman Empire marked the beginning of a period of substantial investment in the city's infrastructure. Situated along the Via Egnatia, a critical road connecting the Adriatic coast to the eastern provinces, Salona facilitated trade and the movement of troops, contributing to its prosperity. Its proximity to fertile inland areas and access to the sea further solidified its role as a vital center for commerce and agriculture.
Under the Roman Empire, Salona flourished and became the capital of the province of Dalmatia. The city's population grew rapidly, reaching an estimated 60,000 inhabitants at its peak. Salona boasted all the amenities of a prosperous Roman city, including baths, theaters, amphitheaters, and temples, reflecting its status and wealth.
Salona also emerged as an important center for early Christianity, becoming the seat of a bishopric in the 3rd century AD. It housed a vibrant Christian community and was associated with several prominent early Christian figures, including the martyrs Domnius and Anastasius. The city was home to numerous churches and religious buildings, with its catacombs becoming significant pilgrimage sites. The spread of Christianity in Salona was marked by periods of persecution, during which many Christians faced martyrdom. However, with the eventual acceptance of Christianity within the Roman Empire, Salona solidified its role as a major religious center. The construction of the Basilica of the Five Martyrs and other religious edifices underscored its importance in the Christian world.
Unlike many of his predecessors and successors, who clung to power until death, assassination or coup (jokingly known as ‘Praetorian Guard Succession’), Diocletian voluntarily stepped down from the most powerful position in the ancient world. Aside from his ailing health, Diocletian’s abdication was a strategic political move designed to ensure the stability and continuity of the Empire. His reign was marked by significant administrative and military reforms aimed at addressing the crises that had plagued the Roman Empire in the 3rd century, known as the Crisis of the Third Century. This period was characterized by tremendous economic turmoil, military defeats, and political instability, with numerous emperors being overthrown in quick succession and whole regions of the Empire attempting to secede.
To address these issues, Diocletian implemented the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by four leaders: two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesars). This system was intended to provide a more efficient and stable line of succession, with each ruler responsible for a specific region of the empire. By abdicating and insisting that his co-emperor, Maximian, do the same, Diocletian aimed to establish a precedent for peaceful transitions of power, thereby reducing the likelihood of civil war and ensuring the longevity of the Tetrarchy. Despite its initial success in bringing temporary stability, the Tetrarchy ultimately failed, leading to renewed civil war and political fragmentation.
Ultimately, the Tetrarchy failed to ensure smooth transitions of power. Diocletian envisioned a system where the Caesars would naturally succeed the Augusti, creating a continuous and orderly rotation of leadership. However, this ideal proved difficult to realize in practice. Upon Diocletian's abdication in 305 AD, and the simultaneous abdication of his co-emperor Maximian, the succession process quickly became contentious. The new Augusti, Constantius Chlorus in the West and Galerius in the East, faced immediate challenges from various factions and rival claimants to the throne.
The ambitions and rivalries among the various rulers and their supporters further exacerbated the instability. The sons of the former Augusti, particularly Constantine (the son of Constantius) and Maxentius (the son of Maximian), were not content with being sidelined. Constantine, acclaimed by his troops, and Maxentius, who seized power in Rome, both contested the legitimacy of the Tetrarchic arrangement. This led to a series of conflicts and power struggles, undermining the unity and effectiveness of the Tetrarchic system.
Moreover, the Tetrarchy failed to address the deeper issues within the Roman Empire, such as economic troubles, military pressures, and administrative inefficiencies. While the division of the empire into smaller administrative units helped in some respects, it also created redundancies and competition between the various parts of the empire. The lack of a strong, centralized authority made it difficult to coordinate responses to external threats, such as invasions by barbarian tribes, and to manage internal economic problems. The bureaucratic expansion necessary to support the Tetrarchy placed additional financial burdens on the empire, contributing to its economic decline.
By 313 AD, the Tetrarchy had effectively collapsed, giving way to a period of renewed civil war and the eventual rise of Constantine the Great as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire and Rome’s first Christian Emperor. Constantine's consolidation of power marked the end of the Tetrarchic experiment and the return to a more traditional model of imperial rule.
Back to the history of Split:
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, the palace's importance declined but it was never abandoned. The local population gradually moved into the palace, repurposing its structures for their use. By the 7th century, the massive palace had transformed into a vibrant settlement, providing refuge from invading Slavs and Avars. During the early medieval period, Split became part of the Byzantine Empire, maintaining its status as an important administrative and religious center. The Cathedral of Saint Domnius, originally Diocletian's mausoleum, became a crucial ecclesiastical seat, and the city developed a thriving economy based on trade and crafts.
From the 15th to the 18th century, Split experienced a turbulent period of shifting control between the Venetian Republic and the Ottoman Empire. The Venetians fortified the city, incorporating it into their maritime empire. Despite these conflicts, Split prospered as a trading hub, benefiting from its strategic coastal location. In the late 18th century, Split fell under Austrian rule, becoming part of the Habsburg Monarchy. The city saw significant modernization and growth during this period, with the introduction of new infrastructure and institutions.
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Split became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). The city continued to expand, becoming a vital industrial and cultural center. During World War II, Split was occupied by Italian and later German forces. After the war, it became part of socialist Yugoslavia, experiencing rapid industrialization and urban development. The post-war period also saw a renewed interest in preserving the city's historical and cultural heritage.
With the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, Split became part of independent Croatia. The city has since focused on tourism and heritage conservation, capitalizing on its rich history and stunning architecture. Diocletian's Palace remains the heart of Split, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979. It is one of the best-preserved Roman monuments in the world, with its ancient walls and buildings seamlessly integrated into the modern city. The palace is a living monument, housing shops, restaurants, and residences within its historic structure.
Visitors can explore numerous landmarks within the palace, including the Peristyle, the central square surrounded by columns and leading to the Emperor's apartments; the Cathedral of Saint Domnius, a prominent church with an iconic bell tower; the Temple of Jupiter, a Roman temple converted into a baptistery; and the well-preserved Basement Halls, which provide insight into the palace's original layout and operation.
Split's vibrant cultural scene, historical significance, and stunning coastal scenery make it a unique destination that seamlessly blends ancient and modern elements. The legacy of Diocletian's Palace continues to shape and define the identity and charm of this remarkable city.
Kotor
The picturesque town situated in the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro boasts a rich and varied history that stretches back over two millennia. Nestled between mountains and the deep waters of the Adriatic Sea, Kotor has been a crossroads of cultures, empires, and civilizations. Its strategic location and natural defenses made it a significant settlement through various historical periods, from ancient times to the present day.
The earliest evidence of human settlement in Kotor dates back to antiquity, with the region being initially inhabited by the Illyrians. The town of Kotor, known as Acruvium in classical antiquity, was founded by the Romans around the 2nd century BC. Its advantageous position along the Adriatic Sea allowed it to flourish as a trade and military hub. Under Roman rule, Kotor became part of the province of Dalmatia and benefitted from the stability and infrastructure provided by the empire, including roads, aqueducts, and fortifications.
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, Kotor came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire. During this period, the town was known as Dekatera or Dekaderon. The Byzantines recognized Kotor's strategic importance and fortified it extensively, building walls and defenses that would shape the city's layout for centuries to come. The town thrived as a maritime center, benefiting from its connections to the larger Byzantine trading network.
The early medieval period was marked by periods of conflict and shifting control. Kotor was attacked by various groups, including the Avars and Slavs, but it managed to retain a degree of autonomy. By the 10th century, Kotor had established itself as a significant regional power, with a robust maritime economy and a degree of political independence under Byzantine suzerainty.
One of the most defining periods in Kotor's history began in 1420 when the town voluntarily joined the Republic of Venice. This decision was motivated by the need for protection against the expanding Ottoman Empire and in the wake of the decline of the Byzantines. Under Venetian rule, which lasted until 1797, Kotor—known as Cattaro—experienced significant growth and prosperity. The Venetians fortified the town with extensive walls, many of which still stand today, and Kotor became an important naval base and trading port in the Venetian maritime empire.
The Venetian influence is evident in Kotor's architecture, urban layout, and cultural heritage. The town's narrow streets, stone buildings, and elaborate churches, such as the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon (built in 1166 and renovated under Venetian rule), reflect the blending of local and Venetian styles. The town also became a melting pot of different cultures, with influences from Italy, the Balkans, and the broader Mediterranean region.
Despite its fortifications, Kotor was not immune to conflict. The Ottoman Empire made several attempts to conquer the town, but it remained under Venetian control until the fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797. After the Treaty of Campo Formio, Kotor briefly came under the rule of the Habsburg Monarchy, only to be transferred to French control under Napoleon in 1805. The French influence was short-lived, and by 1814, Kotor was incorporated into the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna.
Under Austrian rule, Kotor remained an important military and naval base. The Austrians continued to fortify the town and develop its infrastructure, which contributed to its economic stability. The 19th century was a period of relative peace and development for Kotor, allowing it to consolidate its position as a significant regional center.
The 20th century brought significant changes and challenges to Kotor. During World War I, Kotor, as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, found itself in the midst of military conflict. Following the war, the Treaty of Saint-Germain placed Kotor within the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). This period saw further integration of Kotor into the broader Yugoslav state, although the town retained its unique cultural identity.
World War II brought occupation and hardship to Kotor. The town was occupied by Italian forces from 1941 to 1943, and subsequently by German forces until the end of the war. After the war, Kotor became part of socialist Yugoslavia, under which it experienced significant social and economic changes. The communist government invested in the development of infrastructure and industry, transforming Kotor into a more modern urban center.
The breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s led to the establishment of Montenegro as an independent country in 2006. Since gaining independence, Kotor has focused on preserving its rich historical and cultural heritage while promoting tourism and economic development. The town’s well-preserved medieval architecture and stunning natural setting have made it a popular destination for tourists from around the world.
Kotor's inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1979 has been instrumental in its preservation efforts. The town's historic center, with its medieval walls, Romanesque churches, and Renaissance palaces, offers a glimpse into its storied past.
Kotor's history is a tapestry woven with the threads of various empires, cultures, and epochs. From its ancient Illyrian roots and Roman foundations to its flourishing under Byzantine and Venetian rule, Kotor has continually adapted and thrived despite numerous challenges. Its strategic location and natural beauty have made it a coveted prize for many powers, each leaving an indelible mark on the town’s character.
Sveti Stephan
Sveti Stefan, an iconic islet and luxury resort in Montenegro, is renowned for its picturesque beauty and rich history. Located along the Adriatic coast, near the town of Budva, Sveti Stefan has transformed from a fortified fishing village into a world-class luxury destination, reflecting Montenegro's historical and cultural evolution.
The history of Sveti Stefan dates back to the 15th century, during a time of frequent pirate raids along the Adriatic coast. According to legend, the islet was settled in 1442 by the Paštrovići tribe, who built a small, fortified village to defend against these raids. They constructed a wall around the village and a single entrance, turning it into a secure haven for the local population. The village was named after Saint Stephen (Sveti Stefan), the patron saint to whom the main church on the islet was dedicated.
The inhabitants of Sveti Stefan engaged primarily in fishing, farming, and maritime trade. The village thrived as a small, self-sustained community, with its tightly-knit cluster of stone houses, narrow streets, and religious buildings creating a distinct medieval atmosphere. Over the centuries, Sveti Stefan developed a reputation for its strategic importance and resilience against external threats.
During the Venetian rule of the Adriatic coast, from the 15th to the 18th centuries, Sveti Stefan remained an important outpost. The Venetians further fortified the islet and used it as a base to control maritime trade and protect against Ottoman incursions. Despite the frequent conflicts between the Venetians and Ottomans, Sveti Stefan maintained its status as a fortified village and continued to prosper.
Under Ottoman rule, which intermittently affected the region, Sveti Stefan experienced periods of hardship. However, its strategic location and strong defenses allowed it to retain a degree of autonomy. The village's inhabitants adapted to the changing political landscape while preserving their traditions and way of life.
The early 20th century brought significant changes to Sveti Stefan. Following World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Montenegro became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). During this period, Sveti Stefan remained a small fishing village, largely unchanged in its medieval character.
The most dramatic transformation occurred in the mid-20th century, when the Yugoslav government decided to develop Sveti Stefan into a luxury resort. In the 1950s, the village was repurposed as an exclusive hotel complex. The traditional stone houses were converted into elegant accommodations, preserving their historical exterior while modernizing the interiors. This ambitious project aimed to attract high-profile visitors and boost tourism in Montenegro.
Sveti Stefan quickly gained international acclaim as a glamorous destination for celebrities, royalty, and political leaders. Prominent figures such as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren, and Princess Margaret were among its distinguished guests. The islet's unique charm, combining medieval architecture with luxurious amenities, made it one of the most sought-after holiday spots in the world.
The breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s and the subsequent independence of Montenegro in 2006 brought new challenges and opportunities for Sveti Stefan. The resort experienced periods of decline and closure due to the political and economic turmoil in the region. However, significant investments in the early 21st century led to its revitalization.
In 2007, the renowned Aman Resorts group leased Sveti Stefan, undertaking extensive renovations to restore its former glory. The restoration work focused on preserving the historical integrity of the village while upgrading its facilities to meet contemporary luxury standards. The reopened resort once again attracted a global elite, reaffirming its status as a premier destination on the Adriatic coast.
Aman, however, has since been locked in a legal battle with the government of Montenegro over the enforcement of the contract that signed the island over to the resort. Since the beginning of the legal troubles, the resort has been closed.
Today, Sveti Stefan stands as a symbol of Montenegro's rich cultural heritage and its emergence as a luxury travel destination. The islet's stunning beauty, with its terracotta-roofed stone houses, narrow cobblestone streets, and pristine beaches, continues to captivate visitors.
